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The evaluation apprehension theory was proposed by Nickolas B. Cottrell in 1972. He argued that we quickly learn that the social rewards and punishments (for example, in the form of approval and disapproval) that we receive from other people are based on their evaluations of us. On this basis, our arousal may be modulated. In other words, performance will be enhanced or impaired only in the presence of persons who can approve or disapprove our actions. For example, a person who is trying out for cheerleading will feel a heightened sense of arousal leading to incompetence not just because others are around, but because of the fear that others are observing and ridiculing them. Feelings of concern about evaluation nearly always occur when in the presence of others. However, in 1968, Cottrell tried to separate these variables in an experiment. He found that there was no social facilitation effect on three well-learned tasks performed by a participant when there were two other persons (part of the study) blindfolded and supposedly preparing for a perception study. The participants would perform the same as the participants who were to perform the three well-learned tasks alone. Dominant responses (sharper and quicker) were given mainly by participants who had to perform the three tasks in the presence of spectators who seemed interested and who were able to see the participant perform the tasks.〔 People may experience evaluation apprehension when they are part of a negatively stereotyped group and involved in a stereotype-linked activity. For example, women taking a math test may not perform to their full potential because of concerns regarding women's stereotyped difficulties with math. In this situation, evaluation apprehension is called stereotype threat. Stereotype threat can also occur in private, whereas evaluation apprehension cannot. Evaluation apprehension can affect subjects' behavior in psychological experiments, and can lead to invalid casual interference. Rosenberg defined evaluation apprehension as "an active, anxiety-toned concern that he (subject ) win a positive evaluation from the experimenter, or at least that he provide no grounds for a negative one." As a result, subjects have conformed less in conformity studies and exhibited quicker conditioning in conditioning studies as part of a positive self-presentation. Other research on evaluation apprehension has shown that, when they must make a choice, subjects are more concerned with presenting themselves in a favorable light (this has been called the apprehensive hypothesis, the "good subject role"). Concern with giving a positive self-presentation is also implicit in the social desirability bias. This bias is the tendency to give the "socially desired response" (e.g., a response that would typically be considered well-adjusted) in answering items on personality measures. This response set is important for personality researchers because it threatens valid interpretation of test results. ==The Manipulation of Evaluation Apprehension== To study the casual influence of evaluation apprehension in experimental designs, experimenters frequently have to try to manipulate this variable. By creating differing levels of evaluation apprehension, researchers can assess its effect on, and interaction with, other variables, such as self-esteem and manifest anxiety. To heighten participants’ evaluation apprehension, experimenters create situations in which participants perceive themselves as being publicly judged. For example, Kim et. al. (2010)'s tested the effect of apprehension on making positive self-evaluations.〔 Specifically, they studied the effect of evaluation apprehension between two groups: people from collectivistic cultures and people from individualistic cultures. To manipulate evaluation apprehension, they raised and lowered the level of evaluation apprehension depending on if participants were alone or with a group of people when they were asked to make positive self-evaluations.〔 An indirect manipulation of evaluation apprehension is demonstrated in Leary et. al. (1987)’s study of evaluation apprehension on social-esteem and self-esteem. One’s social-esteem is how one is evaluated by others, or at least how one perceives that one is being perceived by others.〔 Until recently, scholars hypothesized that the model of social-esteem directly contrasted the model of self-esteem, one’s evaluation of oneself. There is some consensus that social-esteem is influenced by evaluation apprehension given that they are both related to a person’s apprehension of being evaluated by others. However, recent research shows that evaluation apprehension can also influence general self-esteem.〔 Leary et. al. conducted an experiment in which participants were told that they would be taking a test that could threaten their ego and that either “only they, only another individual, both they and the other individual, or no one would see their test score”.〔 By varying the perceived audience, the researchers indirectly manipulated evaluation apprehension. Leary et. al. thus hoped to create conditions that tested the effects of differing levels of evaluation apprehension on social-esteem and self-esteem. Before the test began, the participants were all assessed on their level of evaluation apprehension. The purpose of the study was then to determine how one’s evaluation apprehension was affected by a threat to one’s self-esteem, social-esteem, both, or neither.〔 The results of Leary et. al. (1987)’s study showed a significant increase in evaluation apprehension for participants with both the self-viewing condition and the peer-viewing condition.〔 Participants in the peer-viewing condition were told that they would be evaluated by others; participants in the self-viewing condition were told that they would be evaluated by themselves. This effect was similarly found for the self-viewing and social-viewing condition, but not for the condition in which no one would view the results. These results demonstrate that one may be able to alter evaluation apprehension by manipulating social-esteem and self-esteem. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Evaluation apprehension model」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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